Introduction to Financial Accounting Assignment Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 750 words - 1

Introduction to Financial Accounting - Assignment Example The researcher states that it is important to recognize that there are various types of financial statements; the balance sheet, the income statement, the statement of retained earnings and the fourth one is the statement of cash flows. The balance sheet also abbreviated as BS is the one that includes records that show the financial position of the organization as at a certain time. It is particularly charged with offering information on the organization’s assets, liabilities and lastly the capital outlay. Through the balance sheet, the various stakeholders are able to analyze the strength and potential of the enterprise. The income statement, on the other hand, gives information on how the enterprise performed within a certain period in time. It usually includes operating and non-operating activities that resulted into bringing in revenue or incurring of expenses by the firm. Therefore, when the two are drawn together the end result is a loss, a profit and rarely an equal bal ance and for this reason it is in other words termed as the profit and loss account or statement abbreviated as P & L. The third is the statement of retained earnings which gives information on the various changes that have occurred to retained earnings of an organization within a certain period. It shows how the retained earnings as at the beginning of a certain period was affected during the period to arrive at the closing balance of that period. The last record is the statement of cash flows which shows where a company’s financing is derived from and the various spending channels of the said finances. It shows an account of cash and cash equivalents and how these are flowing in and out of the company.

Criminal Law Mens Rea Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 2500 words

Criminal Law Mens Rea - Essay Example The topic statement is lifted from Glanville Williams Criminal Law: The General Part [2nd ed. 1961]. A perusal of the topic shows that it runs counter to another statement in the same text which shows the belief of the author that the concept of mens rea is an index of maturity of our legal system. The correlation to the various justifications of punishment or purposes of criminalization does not at all compute when considered from the various vantage points and time frames of the said justification theories. The mental element of crime may be significant for one purpose or the other but the same way that the various purposes do not conjoin with any one crime, the element of mens rea will not be relevant to all the justifications and purposes. The cardinal principle of criminal law is that 'a wrongful act does not make a person guilty unless his mind is legally blameworthy.' There must not only be a wrongful act (actus reus), but with it must also concur intent (mens rea, Latin: the guilty mind; a guilty or wrongful purpose; a criminal intent1). Actus non facit reum nisi mens sit rea.2This is so because evil thoughts are condemnable and punishable only when they are sufficiently dangerous to society and only when translated into evil deeds. From a practical vantage point, there is really no way for any legal system to sanction evil thoughts. Blackstone confirmed this: " "[A]s no temporal tribunal can search the heart, or fathom the intentions of the mind, otherwise then as they are demonstrated by outward actions, it therefore, cannot punish for what it cannot know And as a vicious will without a vicious act is no civil crime, so, on the other hand, an unwarrantable act without a vicious will is no crime at all. So that to constitute a crime against human laws, there must be, first, a vicious will; and secondly, an unlawful act consequent upon such vicious will."3 Again, for Glanville Williams, mens rea is significant of (legal) civilization.4 The existing ideals of justice require that a person should only be punished where he intended to commit the unlawful act. This is a simplistic formulation because if strictly adhered to persons committing crimes in ignorance of criminal law would not be held liable. This situation would result to impossibility in implementing the law. This led to the adoption of presumptions to govern the matter. The burden to prove the existence of a criminal state of mind is lodged upon the prosecution in most offences except those of strict liability. Mens rea does not mean 'wickedness' in any moral or general sense.5 On the other hand, good motive does not provide defence to what is otherwise criminal.6 Mens rea is a legal jargon that refers to a number of states of mind that the law treats as criminal, each of which is related to or accompanies the ingredient of the actus reus of the offence. This concurrence is what gives rise to criminal liability. These states of mind that are relevant to establishing criminal liability are: 1) intention, 2) recklessness and 3) gross negligence about consequences and they represent the fault element of crime. Knowledge of the surrounding circumstances may form part of the mens rea. Not every ingredient of actus reus of a statutory offence has a mens rea counterpart;

Normal and Abnormal Psychology Essay Example for Free

Normal and Abnormal Psychology Essay Psychology is a science that studies the human mind and behavior, to understand and explain thoughts, emotions, and behavior of individuals. Psychology can be applied in different ways, such as mental health treatment, performance improvement or enhancement, self-help and other areas impacting the health and daily life of individuals. Psychology is generally a broad field of science, and there are multiple subfields or areas within it. Two subfields in particular that are going to be discussed in this paper are normal and abnormal psychology. An individual is categorized within these two subfields according to whether their social behavior and way of thinking is common or totally out of the norm. Normal Psychology studies the common or average human behavior of individuals. This particular area focuses mainly on understanding the way the individual thinks and reasons throughout their everyday life. This area does not involve any disorders or psychological illnesses, but instead it researches the human mind in trying to better understand the individual’s thought process and behavior. An individual who would be categorized under normal psychology would not display any mental illnesses, disorders, psychological problems or un-normal behavior. Abnormal Psychology studies abnormal human behavior as well as psychopathology of the individual. Abnormal refers to something that is not normal or out of the norm. This particular area of psychology focuses more on research and treatment for the abnormal behavior displayed by the individual. This area of psychology covers a wide variety of disorders such as depression, sexual deviation, obsession-compulsion, anxiety, mood, developmental, etc. A good way to tell if there is a case of abnormal psychology is anytime the behavior of an individual is causing problems in their life or is disruptive to them or other people. There are a number of perspectives used to treat abnormal psychology. Three main perspectives are: behavioral, medical, and cognitive. The behavioral perspective focuses on the observable behaviors. The medical perspective focuses on biological causes on the mental illness. The cognitive perspective focuses on how their internal thoughts and reasoning contribute to the psychological disorders.

Sociological Concepts In Understanding Obesity

Sociological Concepts In Understanding Obesity This essay will look at sociological concepts and concerns that can help in understanding why obesity is a public health problem. I will begin by giving a definition of obesity, and then address the public health concerns of obesity in relation to sociological concepts such as socioeconomic status, ethnicity and stigma. I will make reference to obesity health inequalities throughout this essay. Relevant contemporary literature and policies will be used to support my arguments. Background Obesity is defined as excessive fat accumulation that may impair health world Health Organisation (WHO). Body mass index (BMI) is a measure of weight-for-height that is commonly used in classifying obesity in individuals. It is defined as the weight in kilograms divided by the square of the height in meters (kg/m2). BMI provides the most useful population-level measure of obesity as it is the same for both sexes and for all ages of adults (Doak et al 2002). In actual figures the World Health Organization (WHO) defines overweight as a BMI equal to or more than 25, and obesity as a BMI equal to or more than 30. These cut-off points provide a benchmark for individual assessment, but there is evidence that risk of chronic disease in the populations increases progressively from a BMI of 21. Ellaway et al (2005) argues however that (BMI) should be considered as a rough guide because it may not correspond to the same degree in different individuals. In 2004, the average body mass index (BMI) of men and women in the United Kingdom was 27kg/m ², which is outside the World Health Organisation recommended healthy range of 18.5-25kg/m2 (Lobstein Jackson-Leach 2007). A greater proportion of men than women (42% compared with 32%) in England were classified as overweight in 2008 (BMI 25 to less than 30kg/m2). Thirty-nine per cent of adults had a raised waist circumference in 2008 compared to 23% in 1993. Women were more likely than men (44% and 34% respectively) to have a raised waist circumference (over 88cm for women and over 102 cm for men) (Department of Health, 2008). Several government documents have emphasised the fact that obesity is a major public health problem due to its association with serious chronic diseases such as type 2 diabetes, hypertension high levels of fats in the blood that can lead to narrowing and blockages of blood vessels, which are all major risk factors for cardiovascular disease and cardiovascular related mortality in England and Wales (National Institute for Health and Clinical Excellence (NICE), 2006). Over weight individuals suffer from a number of problems, such as an increased wear and tear on joints and the psychological and social difficulties caused by altered body image and stigma such as depression which in turn increases the health burden of the National Health Service (NHS) Graham (2004). The increase in numbers of obese people means that the population is at a higher risk of suffering from co-morbidities as a result of their weight gain. Many writers have made a link between people with high BMI and health for instance, people with high BMI are likely to suffer from hypertension and twice as likely to suffer from type- two diabetes and obesity compared to people without hypertension, and half are insulin-resistant (Lobstein Jackson-Leach 2007). One can therefore infer that obesity is linked with increased mortality and contributes to a wide range of conditions, including ischaemic heart disease, hypertension, stroke, certain cancers, and gall bladder diseases. Risk of disease grows with increasing BMI and is particularly marked at high BMI (Ellaway et al 1997). Consequently this is a public health concern because in economic terms, a lowering of the rates of CVD, cancer and strokes would result in significant reductions in the amount spent on drugs and social care r equired to manage these diseases and their effects (Ellaway et al 1997). Socioeconomic Status and Obesity Socioeconomic inequality in obesity is defined as differences in the prevalence of obesity between people of higher and lower socioeconomic status (Mackenbach and Kunst 1994). A large body of evidence suggests that socioeconomic differences in obesity exist throughout the world Sobal and Stunkard (1989). These findings suggest that the increase in inequality in income recently observed in many countries including Bulgaria, Poland, Romania and the Russia may be associated with an increase in the burden of obesity. Midtown Manhattan Study was one of the first to highlight socioeconomic differences in obesity; it found that obesity was six times more prevalent among women of lower socioeconomic status than those of higher socioeconomic status (Mackenbach and Kunst 1994). James et al (1997) found that people in high socioeconomic status in the United Kingdom, have a reduced risk of obesity compared to those with low socioeconomic status. Socioeconomic status and obesity is a public health concern because among children and adults in high-income countries such as the United Kingdom, lower education level and socioeconomic status have been associated with different markers of poor diet potentially associated with obesity, including lower consumption of fresh fruit and vegetables and higher intake of sugar, fat and meat (Northstone and Emmett 2005). Mulvihill (2003) asserts that population groups dietary choices of are often related to socioeconomic considerations. McKee and Raine (2005) suggest that major factors influencing food choices include affordability, accessibility, availability, attractiveness, appropriateness and practicality. This makes sense to me in that people of low socioeconomic status are likely to be obese because for them they cannot always afford to buy fresh fruits vegetables have gym membership as this is expensive. Some proponents have gone as far as saying that the poor do not eat what they wan t, or what they know they should eat, but what they can afford (Wardle and Griffith 2001). One could infer that the cost of food is one barrier to adopting healthier diets, especially among low-income households. Studies have suggested that high energy food which are usually nutritionally poor because of high amounts of added sugar and fat are relatively cheaper cost than lean meat, fish, fresh vegetables and fruit (Doak et al 2002). On the other side of the coin theoretically one can argue that it not only diet and health and affordability of food that makes people obese, for instance for argument sake one could not afford to buy healthy food but can exercise take up a activity to keep themselves fit. The reality however is that people low socioeconomic status are likely to be in low income employment where they are likely to work long hours in overtime and have little time with their families or for leisure activities (Scambler 2008) This is consistent with McKee and Raine (2005) finding that individuals from low socioeconomic status make personal other choices over diet, physical activity and other health promoting action, in practice all actions happen in context disadvantaged individuals face structural, social, organisational, financial and other constraints in making healthy choices. In addition McLaren and Godley (2008) observed that men in sedentary jobs although one would assume that nature of these job s that drives the larger average body size (due to lack of occupation-based physical activity) existing literature would indicate that they are still more likely than their lower status counterparts to engage in physical activity in their leisure time. Other sociological concerns regarding socioeconomic status is whether they are any variations in how individuals with different socioeconomic status perceive obesity or overweight. For instance, analyses from the Office of National Statistics (ONS) (1999) survey showed that many respondents with lower socioeconomic status tended to have lower levels of perceived overweight, thus individuals monitor their weight less closely, were less likely to be trying to lose weight and less frequently used restrictive dietary practices than those with higher socioeconomic status, after adjusting for sex, age and BMI. Wardle and Griffith (2001) found that, women living in highly affluent neighbourhoods were more likely to be dissatisfied with their weight than women from deprived neighbourhoods. Women, particularly those in disadvantaged situations, face structural, social, organisational, financial and other constraints in making healthy choices. Secondly poorer neighbourhoods provide fewer oppor tunity structures for health promoting activities than more affluent areas (Ellaway et al 1997). These findings make it very difficult for professional to decide how to target health promotion activities. Ellaway et al (1997)argues that people who low socioeconomic status focus on the basic issues of survival, whether these be financial including purchasing food at all, let alone healthy sources or social including battling the stigma of poverty and/or overweight and all that is related to it. In my view this suggests that it may be plausible to conclude that where someone lives what socioeconomic status they have and how much they earn can influence his or her opportunities to undertake health promoting activities which in turn may influence body size and shape. Public health policies which aim to reduce the proportion of overweight people in the population should be targeted in deprived local areas, and their facilities and amenities, as well as at individuals (Ellaway et al 1997) . Obesity and ethnicity A great deal of confusion surrounds the meaning of ethnicity and in some cases this term is still being Inter-changeable with race (Scambler 2007). Ethnicity however embodies one or more of the following, shared origins or social background; shared culture and traditions that are distinctive, maintained between generations, and lead to a sense of identity and group; and a common language or religious tradition (Bhopal 2009). There is also repeated evidence of social disparities in the prevalence of obesity and overweight. Data from national surveys paint a consistent picture where women, individuals of lower socio-economic position and minority racial/ethnic groups have the highest rates of obesity and overweight (Bhopal 1998). Links have been made why disparities exist in the prevalence of obesity especially among disadvantaged ethnic minority groups. Henderson and Kelly (2005) suggest that these disparities exists because of inequalities in the society they argue that people with more knowledge, money, power, prestige and beneficial social connections are better able to control weight gain, either through the ability to make healthy food choices (by having greater awareness of, access to, and resources to purchase healthy foods), or through greater opportunities for exercise, and safe play. I agree with this, in my view there is numerous evidence to show that ethnic groups are disadvantaged in term of income, socioeconomic status and employment, the point above suggest to me that ethnic minorities are less likely to have money prestige and social connects that (Henderson and Kelly 2005) suggest will lower the risk of obesity. This view is supported by Sniderman et al (2007) who found no disparities in prevalence of obesity among ethnic groups when he factored in adjustments of socioeconomic status and income. Black ethnic groups have a significantly higher risk of obesity than those in Mixed, Asian, Other and White ethnic groups (Ellaway et al 1997). Children living in deprived areas have a higher risk of obesity than those living in less deprived areas. However, the increased risk associated with deprivation is greatest for White children, whereas it seems to have much less of an effect for black children. For Asian, Other, and Mixed ethnic children deprivation increases the risk of obesity, but not as much as for White children (Ellaway et al 1997). In my opinion however the measuring of BMI to determine and compare obesity between various ethnic groups remains very sketchy. For example Sniderman et al (2007) asserts that in various sections of the population, the BMI classification is not generally applicable. For instance in when looking at children, the elderly and when comparing ethnic groups. Seidell and Visscher (2000) found that there were some systematic variations in normal BMI across ethnic groups in some Asian populations a particular BMI equates to a higher percentage of body fat than for the same BMI in a white European population. In these Asian populations, the risks of type II diabetes and cardiovascular disease increase at a BMI below the standard cut-off value of 25 kg/m2. In other populations, such as black populations, the opposite is true and a particular BMI corresponds to a lower percentage of body fat and consequently lower risks of morbidity and mortality than in a white European population. When comparing obesity in different ethnic groups. Seidell and Visscher (2000) suggest that using a more different definition such as waist to hip ratio rather than standard BMI. Obesity and Stigma Physical deviance has been conceptualised as a stigma by Goffman (1963) defines as any attribute that is deeply discrediting to an individual. In addition to what he calls the abominations of the body or the physical deformities, he lists the tribal stigmas of race, religion, and social class, and what he calls the blemishes of individual character, such as mental illness, addiction, alcoholism, and homosexuality (DeJong, 1980). Goffman (1963) argues that individuals who possess a spoiled identity as a result of their stigma, the consequences can be severe, regardless of the particular nature of the stigma. Although a bit extreme people with stigmatised conditions are viewed as not quite human and are subject to discrimination and outright rejection or avoidance (DeJong, 1980). As a result, the stigmatised learn to continually monitor their self-presentation and to consciously devise strategies of interaction. In spite of those efforts, however, a stigma can continue to intrude itsel f into the interaction, and its possessors may come to feel that their identity is strictly defined in terms of it (DeJong, 1980). On the other hand all the above writers fail to list obesity among the physical stigmata. There is a certain irony in that fact, for some have argued that the obese are subject to a particularly severe degree of ridicule, humiliation, and discrimination. I would argue that perhaps Goffman (1963) and (DeJong, 1980) did not include obesity as in that time being obese held different stature in the society than it does now, for example wealth and physical presents. Secondly I would infer that research into the links of obesity and health were not widely publicised as they do now. Some Scambler (2008) takes a functionalists view that those who possess certain discredited conditions that result in stigma have acquired their deviant status through the commission of deviant acts. In this day and age obesity is seen by some as a discredited condition, this normally results in ideas that obese people are responsible for their condition, in other words they have put themselves in that condition. DeJong (1980) agrees with this notion that people that possess stigmatising conditions are almost always seen as having responsibility for acquiring and controlling their deviant status. Wright (1960) contrasts this by stressing that individuals with a physical stigma are not usually held personally responsible for their condition. Nonetheless in terms of obesity this works both ways the genetic component that the stigmatised individual has no control or responsibility no matter how much dieting and exercise he or she does, and the self inflicted individual who is seen to stuff t hemselves with fatty foods. Wright (1960) suggests that most physical attributes of the body are viewed as determined by genetic and environmental forces beyond an individuals personal control. Quintessentially in the case of obesity observations have frequently been noted to be extremely negative toward the obese, this seems to arise from the belief that obesity is caused by self indulgence, gluttony, or laziness. In short, the obese do seem to be held personally responsible for their physical condition (DeJong, 1980). Obese individuals are commonly blamed for their excess weight, are socially disliked, and are the targets of pervasive negative stereotypes such as having a lack of self-discipline (Puhl and Brownell 2001). Obese people are highly stigmatised and face different forms of discrimination and prejudice because of their weight (Brownell et al 2005). Stigma and obesity is a public health concern as Puhl and Brownell (2001) found that health-care professionals (physicians, nurses, psychologists, and medical students) possess negative attitudes toward obese people. They suggest that obese people are not only stigmatised by the society but by the health professional that are meant to deliver help to them. A study of British healthcare professionals found that providers perceived overweight people to have reduced self-esteem, sexual attractiveness, and health. Healthcare professionals believed that physical inactivity, overeating, food addiction, and personality characteristics were the most important causes of overweight (Puhl and Brownell 2001). Attitudes obese people amongst healthcare professionals is a major public health concern in that it sometimes influences how this group excess health given the fact that they are a high risk population in terms of more prevalence to a number of physical health issues. Puhl and Heuer (2009) found that obese patients who experience stigma in health-care settings may delay or forgo essential preventive care. Mitchell et al (2008) discovered in their study that obese individuals are less likely to undergo screenings for breast, cervical, and colorectal cancer for women with a BMI greater than 55 kg/m2, 68% reported that they delayed seeking health care because of their weight, and 83% reported that their weight was a barrier to getting appropriate health care. When asked about specific reasons for delaying care, women reported disrespectful treatment and negative attitudes from health professionals, embarrassment about being weighed, receiving unsolicited advice to lose weight, and gowns , exam tables, and other equipment being too small to be functional. Removing the stigma-related barriers to receiving screenings may help to diminish the relationship between excess body weight and mortalities (Mitchell et al 2008). Puhl and Heuer (2009) argues that and I am convinced by their view that disapproval by the society leaves overweight and obese individuals vulnerable to social injustice, unfair treatment, and impaired quality of life as a result of substantial disadvantages and stigma. Crawley (2004) found in his study that among females, a negative correlation between body weight and wages. He argues the explanation is that obesity lowers wages; for example, by lowering productivity or because of work placed discrimination, secondly is that low wages cause obesity. Conclusion Where someone lives what socioeconomic status they have and how much they earn can influence the choices they make about their health. Ethnic disparities in the prevalence of obesity still exist in the United Kingdom. Sociological concepts can assist us in understanding how to deal with obesity given known link between poor diets during pregnancy is a risk factor for low birth weight, which in turn has been associated with abdominal obesity in adulthood Crawley (2004).

Great Gatsby :: essays papers

Great Gatsby Two prevalent themes portrayed in The Great Gatsby are money and social status, both which coincide with the novel’s four settings: East Egg, West Egg, the Valley of Ashes, and New York. As Natania stated, these different locations are used to â€Å"show the absurdities of modern life,† as well as to dictate social class from the upper royal status of the East Egg community to the common folk of New York. Fitzgerald uses these settings and the actions of characters within them to define and set boundaries between financial and social status of the roaring 20’s. An example of Fitzgerald’s technique lies in the comparison of Myrtle Wilson’s party in her New York apartment to one of Gatsby’s many summer parties in his West Egg mansion. Through descriptions of guests coming and going frequently, and the obnoxious drinking and wild conversation going on at the New York and West Egg parties, the reader can conclude that neither of these locations are above the social standing of an upper class party of East Egg, such as one at Tom and Daisy Buchanan’s without the slight insanity of their dysfunctional family. However, the differences between Myrtle and Gatsby’s parties are great and relevant to Fitzgerald’s theme. For example, the physical description of guests attending the party in New York gives knowledge to the reader of their lower class standing. Myrtle’s sister arrives with a â€Å"sticky bob of red hair† and wild, unnatural eyebrows and makeup, and Mr. McKee with lather showing on his cheekbone. His wife is described as â€Å"shrill, languid, handsome, and horrible,† quite the opposite of guests attending Gatsby’s party, and even the host himself. Fitzgerald describes Gatsby as a very clean cut, proud postured, gentlemanly looking man with hair which looks like it â€Å"were trimmed every day,† just as a stereotypical member of the social upper class should appear. Myrtle’s party included obnoxious, almost insane guests who were quick to speak their rude, blunt opinions and provide proof to Jordan Baker’s statement that â€Å"at small parties there isn’t any privacy.† In fact, Tom Buchanan was so uncivilized a guest as to punch Myrtle, his lover and the party’s hostess, and cause a bloody mess.

Costs of Childhood Cancer Treatment and Research Essay example -- Heal

Cancer, one of the most feared words in our vocabulary of this time, especially in childhood (Druker 1). Most people when thinking of â€Å"childhood cancer† envision very young children, although a â€Å"Nation Institute of Health Policy concerning inclusion of children in clinical research defines children as being younger than twenty-one years of age while the Food and Drug Administration considers children to be fifteen years and younger† (Ries 158). That being said, most cancers incidence peak among children occurs during the first year of life (Gurney 149). Some of the most well-known nationwide childhood cancers are leukemia, brain cancer, and other central nervous system cancers (oeconline 1). In conjunction, â€Å"the side effects of treatment, which range from heart disease to brain damage, can linger for decades and cost nearly as much as therapy for the original cancer† (USATODAY 1). With the total cost of childhood cancer exceeding many peopleâ€℠¢s yearly salary, help and support are the main focus for many childhood cancer advocacies (disease.com 1). Therefore, increasing awareness is the first step to raising more advocacy and support for childhood cancer programs and research (StJude.org 2). Childhood cancer treatment is an excessively pricey dilemma. It ranges from the cost per child to the overall cost. For example, â€Å"a new leukemia medication for children who no longer benefit from chemotherapy, costs $45,000 for a three week treatment cycle† (USATODAY 1). With the average time span of cancer treatment ranging from three months to roughly three years the price can climb to multiple figures (compasscare 1). The median cost per day for one child in a pediatric hospital for cancer treatment is nearly $1,000 more than the average... ...ng diagnosed with cancer as a whole. As a refuge for many families, St. Jude’s Children’s Research Hospital takes responsibility for all expenses dealing with immediate medical care that insurance does not cover. As well as immediate medical care coverage, St. Jude’s also distributes other attributes to the family in need, such as housing and payment for outpatient expenses. Since St. Jude’s is run by the donations of donors from around the world, although mostly from around the country, it is vital for the survival and future cure for childhood cancers that we as a nation continue to fuel St. Jude’s Children’s Research Hospital to prosper and thrive. In conclusion, childhood cancer treatment and research is extremely important for the future survival of thousands of childhood lives. Every cent matters when it comes to saving the lives of our future generations. Costs of Childhood Cancer Treatment and Research Essay example -- Heal Cancer, one of the most feared words in our vocabulary of this time, especially in childhood (Druker 1). Most people when thinking of â€Å"childhood cancer† envision very young children, although a â€Å"Nation Institute of Health Policy concerning inclusion of children in clinical research defines children as being younger than twenty-one years of age while the Food and Drug Administration considers children to be fifteen years and younger† (Ries 158). That being said, most cancers incidence peak among children occurs during the first year of life (Gurney 149). Some of the most well-known nationwide childhood cancers are leukemia, brain cancer, and other central nervous system cancers (oeconline 1). In conjunction, â€Å"the side effects of treatment, which range from heart disease to brain damage, can linger for decades and cost nearly as much as therapy for the original cancer† (USATODAY 1). With the total cost of childhood cancer exceeding many peopleâ€℠¢s yearly salary, help and support are the main focus for many childhood cancer advocacies (disease.com 1). Therefore, increasing awareness is the first step to raising more advocacy and support for childhood cancer programs and research (StJude.org 2). Childhood cancer treatment is an excessively pricey dilemma. It ranges from the cost per child to the overall cost. For example, â€Å"a new leukemia medication for children who no longer benefit from chemotherapy, costs $45,000 for a three week treatment cycle† (USATODAY 1). With the average time span of cancer treatment ranging from three months to roughly three years the price can climb to multiple figures (compasscare 1). The median cost per day for one child in a pediatric hospital for cancer treatment is nearly $1,000 more than the average... ...ng diagnosed with cancer as a whole. As a refuge for many families, St. Jude’s Children’s Research Hospital takes responsibility for all expenses dealing with immediate medical care that insurance does not cover. As well as immediate medical care coverage, St. Jude’s also distributes other attributes to the family in need, such as housing and payment for outpatient expenses. Since St. Jude’s is run by the donations of donors from around the world, although mostly from around the country, it is vital for the survival and future cure for childhood cancers that we as a nation continue to fuel St. Jude’s Children’s Research Hospital to prosper and thrive. In conclusion, childhood cancer treatment and research is extremely important for the future survival of thousands of childhood lives. Every cent matters when it comes to saving the lives of our future generations.

American Election

Proponents also point out that, far from diminishing minority interests by depressing voter participation, the Electoral College actually enhances the status of minority groups. This is so because the votes of even small minorities in a state may make the difference between winning all of that state’s electoral votes or none of that state’s electoral votes. And since ethnic minority groups in the United States happen to concentrate in those states with the most electoral votes, they assume an importance to presidential candidates well out of proportion to their number.The same principle applies to other special interest groups such as labor unions, farmers, environmentalists and so forth. Most states use a winner-take-all system, in which the candidate with the most votes in that state receives all of the state's electoral votes. This gives candidates an incentive to pay the most attention to states without a clear favorite, such as Pennsylvania, Ohio and Florida.For ex ample, California, Texas and New York, in spite of having the largest populations, have in recent elections been considered safe for a particular party; Democratic for California & New York; Republican for Texas, and therefore candidates typically devote relatively few resources, in both time and money, to such states It is possible to win the election by winning all of eleven states and disregarding the rest of the country. In the close elections of 2000 and 2004, these eleven states gave 111 votes to Republican candidate George W.Bush and 160 votes to Democratic candidates Al Gore and John Kerry. Part 2. How the Electoral College system in the general election fail to ensure that the presidential candidate who wins the most votes becomes president. One way in which a minority president could be elected is if the country were so deeply divided politically that there were three or more presidential candidates split the electoral votes among them such that no one obtained the necessa ry majority. This occurred in 1824 and was successfully attempted in 1948.Those who object to the Electoral College system and favor a direct popular election generally do so on four grounds: the possibility of electing a minority president, the risk of so-called faithless electors, the possible role of the Electoral College in depressing voter turn out and its failure to accurately reflect the national popular will. A faithless voter is one who pledge to vote for his or her party’s candidate for president but nevertheless votes for another candidate.In this way the Electoral College may fail to ensure that the presidential candidate who has the most votes becomes president. On the concern of the possible role of the Electoral College in depressing voter turn out critics argue that since each state is entitled to the same number of electoral votes regardless of its voter turnout, there is no incentive to encourage voter participation. The college fails to accurately reflect t he national popular will in at least two respects. First the distribution of Electoral votes in the college tends to over-represent people in rural states.This is because the number of Elector for each state is determined by the number if members it has in the House (which more or less reflects the state’s population size) plus the number of members it has in the senate (which is always two regardless of the states population). A second way in which the Electoral College fails to accurately reflect the national popular will stem primarily from winner-take-all mechanism whereby the presidential candidate who wins the most poplar votes in the state wins all the Electoral votes of that state.One effect of this mechanism is to make it extremely difficult for third-party or independent candidates ever to make much of showing in the Electoral College. If for example, a third party or independent candidate were to win the support of even as many as 25% of the voters nationwide, he m ight still end up with no Electoral College votes at all unless he won a plurality of votes in at least the state. And even if he managed to win a few states, his support elsewhere would not be reflected.By thus failing to accurately reflect the national popular will, the argument goes, the Electoral College reinforces a two party system, discourages third party or independent candidates and thereby tends to restrict choice available to the electorate. Part 3 How some groups have much higher turnover rates than? Low turnout is often considered to be undesirable and there is much debate over the factors that affect turnout and how to increase it. Its case has been attributed to a wide array of economic, demographic, cultural, technological and institutional factors.A high turnover is generally seen as evidence of the legitimacy of the current system. Socioeconomic factors significantly affect whether or not individuals vote. The most important socioeconomic factor in voter turnout is education. The more educated a person, the more likely he or she is to vote, even when controlled for other factors such as income and class that are closely associated with education level. Income has some effect independently. Wealthier people are more likely to vote regardless of their educational background.Other demographic factors have an important influence: young people are far less likely to vote than the elderly and single people are less likely to vote than those who are married. Occupation has little effect on turnover with the notable exception of higher voting rates among government employees in many countries. Generally speaking, the lower voters’ education level and lower voters’ income level, the less likely they are to vote. For example, college graduates in some recent election have had turnout levels nearly twice that of those who have not finished high school.Some individuals possess more politically relevant sources, like income and education, th an others, some are more interested in public affairs and some are more likely to be recruited to participate. These factors arise from early socialization at home and in school and from affiliations with voluntary associations, workplaces and religious institutions. Public policies can confer resources, motivate interest in government affairs by trying well-being to government action, define groups for mobilization and even shape the content and meaning of democratic citizenship.These effects are positive for some groups, like senior citizens, raising their participation levels. A surge in black voters’ turnout is often cited as a central factor in Jimmy Carter’s 1976 election victory. Beginning with Parenti (1967), many scholars advanced an â€Å"ethnic community† theory to explain why members of major ethnic groups in American cities (particularly the Irish, Italians and Jews) participated politically at rates much higher than their levels of education and in come would predict.According to this theory, socially marginalized groups developed strong communal norms of participation to which there is considerable pressure within the group to conform. Political and social participation in elections asserts the importance of minority groups within the larger society. As such, all members of the group are expected to have interest. Part 4 How campaign contributions from Political Action Committees may tilt the political system toward big moneyed interests.Citizens with lower or moderate incomes speak with a whisper that is lost on the ears of inattentive government officials, while the advantaged roar with a clarity and consistency that policy-makers readily hear and routinely follow. As people become more concentrated and the flow of money into elections has grow campaign contributions give the affluent a means to express their voice that is unavailable to most citizens. Government is expected to help ensure equal opportunity for all, not to tilt toward those who already have wealth and power. Even more clearly, Americans celebrate and expect equal democratic rights.Americans fervently believe that everyone should have an equal say in our democratic politics, helping to shape what government does. They embrace whole-heartedly the ideal enunciated by the U. S. Declaration of Independence that â€Å"all men are created equal, â€Å"which in our time means that every citizen regardless of income, gender, race, and ethnicity should have an equal voice in representative government. The government is run by a few big interests looking out only for themselves. Campaign contributors do not represent the interests of the majority citizens.In 2000, an income of over $ 100,000 was found only in 12 percent of American households. 95 percent of campaign contributors were from these households. Political contributors or moneyed interests are not bribing politicians directly. What moneyed interests and wealthy citizens do gain from contributing hugely is influence on the people who run for office and an audience with these people once they get to power. Essay #2 Part 1 Why the US has only two parties represented in its legislature unlike other established democracies. Too much partisanship can be fatal to democracy.The weakness of parties can also pose dangers. In a legislature with weak party attachments, it may prove impossible to pass needed legislation. The result, as in Yeltsin’s Russia is often resort to presidential decrees or even the forcible disbanding of the legislature. Conversely, legislators may be easily wooed by a president through patronage or less savory means. In countries with weak parties like the Philippines and Korea, it has been common for presidents elected without a legislative majority to acquire one through massive party defections.Indeed, one of the areas in which the dozens of new democracies established in the past two decades have been least successfully is the creation o f strong and stable political parties committed to democracy. In part, this reflects the impossibility of crafting a party system unlike most other key democratic political institutions, parties cannot be legislated into existence. At the same time it reflects a global trend, as political parties seem to be increasingly enfeebled institutions in the more established democracies as well.Almost everywhere, parties no longer command the loyalty or confidence they once did and the number of independent voters and ticket-splitters has grown. The US uses the principle of proportional representation which in essence means that parties or blocks of like minded voters should win seats in legislative assemblies to their share of the popular vote. A two party system is the only way to practice this principle. The cultural diversities in US are well catered for in a two party system. Having many parties in such a diverse society would mean that the real views of the people would not be reflecte d.More over a majority would be hard to achieve with many parties being represented in the legislature. Part 2 Why turnout in the US is so low compared to other established democracies? The US is one of the few countries require citizens to get themselves registered to vote, rather than having the government pro-actively making sure that all voters are on the electoral rolls, usually through some form of automatic and permanent registration on achieving voting age. On the one hand, in the United States, registration requirements are a serious barrier to political participation.There are many reasons why turnout in the US is as low as it is. Voters have to want to go to the polls and believe that their votes will matter. Many voters are disaffected from two political parties, turned off by negative campaigning, intimidated by the long ballots, and bothered by the lack of clear accountability in the crazy guilt federal system. The election laws themselves make it more difficult for pe ople to participate. For example Election Day is usually on a weekday (the first Tuesday in November for presidential and congressional elections) and it may be difficult for people to get away from work to vote.A more direct reduction in participation is brought about by laws in many states that bar convicted criminals from the political process. Approximately five millions Americans are unable to participate in the elections for these reasons. Other countries have found more direct ways to ensure high voter turnout such as making voting compulsory. In Australia, citizens who do not vote are subject to paying a fine and in Belgium, repeated failure to vote can lead to having your right to vote permanently cancelled. In America voting is not compulsory.The governments of most established countries take the responsibility of registering as many eligible voters as possible. In the US it is the sole responsibility of the individual to register for voting. If the costs and benefits that Americans encounter are markedly different than those encountered by citizens of other countries, then that should explain why the US turnout rate is so low. America’s unique registration laws accounted for roughly half the difference between US turnout rates and those of other advanced industrialized democracies in the 1960s and 1970s.Part 3. Advantages and disadvantages of the American style of candidate centered politics. The decline of American political parties in recent decades has made strength of partisanship even more important in predicting who votes. The rise of candidate-centered politics and the decline of partisanship can explain this phenomenon. When the focus of campaigns was on two parties rather than many candidates for many offices, everyone gained at least somewhat from picking choosing ones favorite candidates from both parties.Thus even those who did not identify with a party in the past could benefit from the partisan manner by which the campaigns were conducted. In the candidate-centered environment now, by contrast, the mobilizing effects of party competition have been felt more disproportionately according to ones level of party identification. The result has been rising inequality of turnout rates according to partisan strength. Voters in parliamentary systems are becoming more candidates centered in their voting, compared to voters in presidential systems.At the same time, it would appear that voters in presidential systems are evaluating candidates in a more instrumental and less partisan way. More so than in the past, candidates’ campaigns are self sufficient organizations indirectly dependent on political parties. And as agents of information, campaigns are replacing parties as the primary source of information about the candidates. Reference: Franklin, Mark (2001) â€Å"The Dynamics of Participation in the Electoral Process†. In Comparing Democracies: Elections and Voting in Global Perspective 2, ed. Lauren ce Leduc, Richard Niemi and Pippa Norris. Thousand Oaks CA: Sage, in press